wisdomhoots

Staff development for distance education is not a recent phenomenon. It has been in existence since 1970s. Initially the open universities did not assume any formal training for staff development. It was assumed that on the job training for them will be sufficient for them to develop and deliver the courses.  In ODL or DE, quality of the educational or teaching material is the first indicator or determinant of credibility. It needs a course team to put the study material together for a course. Often these teams are needed as the course material could be interdisciplinary in nature and the medium or media used to develop this material needs technical or media experts to be part of the team.  A course team is needed as the course produced by a method will be much better than the one prepared by an individual faculty. The course development team needs training the most in the case of distance education. A course team needs subject matter experts, an editor, a technologist, a producer, a course administrator and a staff tutor. One of the subject experts act as a chairperson of the course team. He or she is responsible to conduct meetings and keep the team together during the process of course development. The subject matter experts of academic team work together under the chairperson, coming from across the departments and with the non-academic team but they are held accountable to their respective departments. Non-academic staff could also include personnel such as graphic experts, project control staff, librarians etc.  The draft units are prepared by the individual academic contributor and discussed with the whole team. The modifications and suggestions are incorporated based on the team feedback.  The functioning of the course team is not always smooth or as expected. Some of the challenges could be  (i) getting the right academics – subject expertise, writing skills, teaching skills, time consciousness and cost consciousness  (ii) clash of egos and  (iii) problems in integrating specializations as people find collaborating and understanding each other, a  complex process. Despite such team work oriented challenges inherent to the course team, it is expected that it  (a) produces excellent teaching material by seamlessly integrating content and expertise from across the disciplines. (b) trains its course team members selectively as needed from time to time to keep pace developments in the market (c) develops the course material quickly and within the budgeted cost. The value of the course content increases on each iteration. and  (d) goes beyond the course development and works on delivering it too in an engaged manner. Course consists of  (i) theoretical studies (ex curriculum, educational technologies, science of learning etc)  ii) management studies (ex staff management, facility management, copyright and contracts) and  (iii) production skills (ex graphics, editing and recording). It needs staff development on the three components. The target groups (the staff) engaged in distance education need to be trained in a dedicated manner with a help of professional course, whether its a developing or developed nation. The objectives of such staff development training courses are – to make distance education relevant to the country and its HRD objectives, help make an informed choice of various methods of distance education, help organize the administration aspects of delivering the distance education and revise and maintain the course content. Course content development for staff typically  includes activities like conducting workshops for – planning, producing printed materials and non-text (AV) materials, projects on under specific themes and case studies from the countries.  Distance education trainers are not taught as distance educators. They are trained in the fundamentals of distance education, by being a distance education learner themselves. It is the same training that a typical educator would need. They are taught about challenges that come in when delivering distance education which are not present otherwise in the conventional or face to face programs. They are taught the program or trained in the same environment as typical the students will face in a distance education mode.  The training this way imparts more relevant experience to them. The reason being, distance educators of today might not have been distance learners themselves. Hence they may not have practical exposure to what a student in a distance education mode goes through as an experience. They need to understand what “an individualized or personalized learning” means to a distance learner. There are four kinds of parameters that need to be considered for a staff development program:  (1) structural parameters like course function, modes of instruction, subject characteristics, subject location, teach characteristics, student characteristics and professional assistance  (2) instructional parameters – motivation, goal, cognitive aspects of learners, signposting, activation (questions and activities), feedback, transfer and retention and assessment and evaluation  (3) effectiveness of parameters. Addressing the the three level of concerns of the staff – impact, task and self-concern, designing the program as per staff needs, and  (4) staff development stages – define what is new in the training, identify the concerns related to the new learning, organize them in different groups. relate each group with the objective to be achieved, prepare blueprint for design and implementation of the program.  The course to cover – concepts and philosophy of the DE, socio-economic relevance of DE, characteristics of the instructional material, practical and support services. Circular Issues- Just like any students, the staff in DE has an educational need. Hence there is a need to put a methodology that can answer such questions like why training is required – professional training needs to adapt to the new changes in the system quickly and contribute to the change, who need training – professional experience in terms of pursuing distance education a  career or those who are active in social reforms using DE, who will train and whom (trainees) – professional trainees like planners, administrators, technologists, facilitators and non-professional trainees like policy makers, politicians, community leaders, housewives, liaison agents – parents, religious agents etc and what should be the characteristics of the trainers for distance education programs –

The increase in monetary value of the goods and services produced in an economy in a given time period or a fiscal year (short term) is referred to as economic growth. It is a quantitative measure of business transactions taking place in an economy. It is measured in terms of the increase in the aggregate market value of additional goods and services produced by using concepts like GDP and GNP. When compared to economic development (multi-dimensional aspects to measure a nation’s quality of life), economic growth is a narrow concept (uni-dimensional, i.e., GDP and GNP-based increase in monetary value of production). It may not require any state intervention, whereas economic development necessitates the formation of developmental policies and their enforcement or implementation. Economic growth is more applicable to developed nations, while economic development is more applicable to developing economies. Economic Development is the (long term) process by which an economy or a nation keeps improving upon its overall education level, health and well being of its population. It attributes to improvement in production volume owing to advancements in technology and human capital. It is also measure of qualitative improvement of people and their lives represented by Human Resource Development Index (HDI). It depends upon many factors (for computing qualitative measures like HDI and quantitative measures like per capita income, industrial development) such as job opportunities, technological advancements, standard of living, living conditions, per capita income, quality of life, improvement in self-esteem needs, GDP, industrial and infrastructural development etc.  Humans resources are active agents who exploit natural resources. For such an exploitation, they depend upon the skills and knowledge. These skills and knowledge comes from a systemic and long term process of investing in learning and educational resources. The nation can not grow  sustainably without growing its human resources both from the health and education perspective, before it goes to work to produce goods and services and earn for itself and for the nation. There is a need to develop human resources through distance education as it provides a parallel source of learning without disrupting the current stream of earnings. Distance education is becoming an integral part of the job. It improves the job performance through general and specific trainings. Access to knowledge is critical determinant of long term well being, happiness and is essential for individual development and freedom. Education provides the real freedom as it allows one to seek what they want to do and who they want to be. Distance education enabled by ICT can increase its reach to all the people (national or global level) across all the levels, at the convenience of learners and in their homes (for that matter, anywhere they want to be). It influences the health (especially for the professionals as adults or aging population who have health related issues that comes with the age)  as it removes the inconvenience and constraint of frequent or daily traveling for to be situated in one designated location in a traditional regulated classroom environment (the educational infrastructure is not readily available in each locality in vicinity or neighborhood) . At that age, they need more time for their own health and other elders at their care (social obligations which are even more for a working women). Time and place, both are big constraints for them. Distance education is an effective mode of keeping themselves up for the job irrespective of their current profession. It helps them keep improving their work efficiency and productivity and continue to be part of the changing economy or developmental trends. Distance Education helps you pace your education based on your time and environment. It is cost effective and one could acquire skills and knowledge from multiple sources. It is inclusive. In short,  it offers, freedom of time, place, pace, medium, access, age, class (rural or urban, gender or social inequalities), cost, prior knowledge or level of education, faculty (peer, industry, teacher) and curriculum. The pace factor addresses the drop-out  and repeat related economic and social issues normally present in the conventional system as a waste. Distance education needs national, centralized and autonomous bodies (on-campus and off-campus or open learning). Education is an investment in human capital  for nation development and growth. It increases employment, meet basic needs, reduce inequalities in wealth and income and raise the productivity of the poor. Human Resource Development (HRD) is not an isolated societal activity. It is an accumulation or formation of human capital through education (science and technology), health, nutrition and social welfare. It is about providing better education under improved or better health conditions. They are correlated subject matters. Education and social welfare are inter-linked. New knowledge is acquired to bring or raise the level of social welfare activities. Distance education reduces dropouts to insignificant levels, and provide recurring and continuing education with substantial vocationalisation of secondary education.  Education is an investment as increases the wealth and earning capacity of an individual and an enterprise. It improves human capital leading to increase in non-human or physical capital. The rate of physical capital formation grows as the rate of human capital forms or grows and they both grow as the capital or investments in the education system grows or becomes productive. It raises the work productivity and  job transitions (flexibility). These are both private and social returns from investment in education or for that matter distance education as well. And distance education is more economic to deliver and has wider reach or impact. Hence it has a huge role in human resource development from education perspective. In short, there is no better alternative today but to ride this wave of technology enabled learning medium or formats formally or informally. It is a cheaper, faster and better option to conventional system and provides higher private and social returns. It is easy to adapt for multiple learners and programs.  Education spurs economic growth which can be measured by two frameworks. (1) Growth Accounting Framework and (2) Endogenous Growth Framework. In case of the first, the earnings like per capita income

Cost analysis of education as an economic good helps in (i) estimating resource requirements (ii) allocating budget or funds (iii) monitoring resource usage and identifying waste (iv) using cost functions for decision making  and (v) understanding inequalities in the cost of education across regions, gender, social class, ethnicity and income groups. Based on the purpose of decision making , there are different types of cost analysis methods or functions available to the evaluator: 1. Basic Cost Analysis: Basic cost is to know how much an educational initiatives or program could cost in total and what is the cost break-up by types of inputs or resources.  2. Cost-feasibility analysis: if it is necessary to understand whether the total cost is within the budget or budgetary constraints or not, such a basic cost analysis is called cost-feasibility analysis. In this the total cost is compared with source of financing the program. Note: The computation of benefits is not needed in basic cost and cost feasibility analysis. The focus is on the inputs or cost or input resources (total as well as distribution of cost over resources or categories of resources).  3. Cost-effectiveness analysis: Effectiveness is defined as performance on a single criterion or variable. If the cost measurement is used to compare one option with another (different educational program or methods to achieve the same and/or singular objective) designed and implemented to meet the same objective (single criterion or outcome measure for relative cost comparison), then its called cost-effectiveness analysis. It tells about the internal efficiency of the resources invested in a program or option. Cost-effectiveness first assesses whether the resources or inputs being used are able to deliver the required effect or impact or outcome or not. In this case, the effects or outputs or benefits are first identified in terms of the physical outcomes or units (not monetary terms or measures in different units) followed by the cost of input resources (monetary terms).  Then the cost of achieving these outcomes (set against a single objective)  are then compared with other alternative options to ascertain how cost effective a particular chosen option is (as compared to others). It mostly used for comparison of options designed for implementation to achieve single objective or having similar outcome goals or objectives (not for options or programs designed to deliver multiple or different objectives or criteria). By executing an option that is most cost effective (delivers all the objectives or outcomes as needed at the least cost), one can ensure optimal usage of resources.  4. Benefit-Cost Analysis: If the cost is analyzed to ascertain the benefits or returns or economic profitability, then this becomes benefit-cost analysis. One needs to identify various resources or inputs to education then classify them and measure their costs in monetary terms, Same way, all the output measures our effects or benefits need to be translated in terms of the monetary value (present monetary value of the the outcomes or outputs or benefits) . Unlike, cost effectiveness which measures the outcomes in terms of non-monetary physical units and compares it with the input cost, benefit-cost measures both the the benefits or outputs (it could be multiple and different outcomes or outputs) and the costs or inputs and finds the multiplier (ratio of benefit to cost) to know which program or option is more economically profitable. Benefit-cost analysis is needed to identify the option that has more benefits to deliver and less costs to incur. All benefits and costs are translated in monetary terms.  5. Cost-Utility Analysis: It is done to ascertain the value of the program or option. In this case, the program could have different outcomes or utilities (monetary and non-monetary). The programs are evaluated by the stakeholders, based on the utility score or value or outcomes as perceived relevant by them. There can be multiple different utilities and benefits which are perceived as important differently by different stakeholders. Unlike in the case of cost-effectiveness, where single output criteria is used to compare the alternative options, it uses multiple criteria (monetary and/or non-monetary) or outcomes and assigns utility value to them based on how the stakeholders perceive them. It is hence more subjective than other methods of cost analysis. It answers the following cost for each stakeholder or decision maker – Which program or option has the highest utility at the lowest cost? It does not focus on the cost-effectiveness i.e. it could have higher utility value for some stakeholders but low or no utility value for others. It relates the utility value of the various outcomes or outputs of the program or option to the cost of inputs or resources used to produce the outputs.  Cost of Education is sum total of all input resources and total social cost of education is sum of both the public (or institutional) and private (or individual) costs. The private costs are of two types – direct and indirect. Direct is what gets paid for the education (fees, accommodation, travel etc.) and indirect are hidden or invisible costs like foregone earning or opportunity costs (or investments done by others like parents’ time invested alongside with the student or salary not earned or foregone as the individual time is diverted/assigned to learning and not earning during the course of education). Real costs consider the opportunity cost as well to compute the total cost.  Cost incurred by the institution (educational body, state, government, private or mixed) is called the institutional cost or public cost of education (financed by the governmental institutions like taxes, loans or other sources of public revenues). Public costs are also of two types – direct and indirect. The direct costs include recurring and non-recurring i.e. fixed (one time fund for setting up infrastructure) and variable (for operations or running the programs). Fixed costs do not vary with any input or output variable like number of enrolments.  Recurring costs vary like with number of students (output variable) and number of teachers (input variable). Indirect public cost is lost opportunity to invest the same amount

The concept of “economics of education” was born in 1960 with Theodore Schultz. The economics of education is linked with the labour (welfare, household, and finance) economics of a nation. The interest is in understanding the economics of education from four dominant aspects: (i) cost and benefits; (ii) planning (rate of return, manpower and social demand); (iii) effectiveness and efficiency; and (iv) sources of revenue. Public or social goods are non-rivalrous (enjoyed in common; consumption by one does not subtract from another’s consumption of that good) and non-excludable (meant and accessible for all). It includes clean air, water, a public park, national defense, etc. However, there is the concept of free riding. For instance, by non-excludability, it means that people who do not pay taxes also get to enjoy or consume (free-ride) the common or public goods in society Merit goods (originated by Richard Musgrave around 1957-59) are goods that an individual or society should have access to based on a concept of merit or benefit (instead of just willingness or ability to pay). It includes delivery of health services (like in the case of vaccinations, wherein appropriate criteria for prioritisation is needed to regulate the distribution of benefits, like those who are exposed to diseases or harm, would need to be delivered on a priority basis than others) or subsidised housing, etc. Education (depending upon its type) could also belong to this (merit) category of economic goods. Education is inherently non-rivalrous in nature. Having by one does not diminish another’s consumption of it. Private goods, on the contrary, are exclusive and rivalrous in nature. They belong to their respective owners or buyers, who have the right to consume them (and exclude others from their consumption). For example., toys, clothes, food, cars etc.  Education is also a private good, i.e., like food for consumption, i.e., it is sold and excludes others who have not bought it to benefit from its consumption. Similarly, education is both an investment (benefits accrue to society or people beyond those who consume or acquire it, supports further production of goods, called capital goods) and a consumption (the acquirer, an individual or community, directly or exclusively reaps the benefits, and once it is consumed, it can not be transferred or transformed further).  Capital goods are man-made objects like plants, machines, tools, and equipment that support further production of goods. Education is an economic good for consumption as well as an investment for both individuals and societies. There is no single approach to ascertain the proportion in which education contributes as an investment and as consumption (for the individual or society).  In primary education, the consumption component is much higher than the investment component. In secondary education, the consumption component is on par with the investment component. In higher education, the investment component is much higher than the investment component. Whether education serves the purpose of consumption or investment, it needs to be analysed and analysed both at an individual and societal level. Goods in economics can be described based on the purpose they serve : consumption and/or investment. Education falls under both these categories. It is an investment activity as it increases the productivity of labour and the lifetime earning potential (wages and wealth) of individuals by way of imparting knowledge and skills. It builds human capital that can innovate and deliver new goods and services. However, unlike physical capital (plants or machines), human capital is built when individuals also invest their own time and resources into it, as well. In the case of an employer-employee relationship aimed at building human capital, the employer would like to invest in those training or learning competencies that are “specific” to the firm. While employees need to invest in education to build “general” training or  competencies (applicable across the firms or employers). The rate of return (individual/private or societal/public) equates to the present value of the costs incurred in education to the present value of additional or future lifetime earnings (income, benefits) attributable to education. This is like comparing the cost incurred and the income stream generated by any other capital asset. In the case of societal or public investments, these are the overall state or national level investments made in the education sector (unlike in the case of private or individual investment). Hence, one could distinguish the private rate of return (cost incurred or earnings foregone and income earned after paying taxes or non-income benefit gained related to an individual’s investment of time and resources in education) from the social rate of return (cost incurred by the state or society on building and running educational infrastructure at large and gross earnings made before taxes or deductions as benefits). Since the costs are higher in public or societal education, the returns are comparatively lower when compared to the private rate of return. Human Capital: Education when considered as an investment in human resources, forms Human Capital for the economy. Unlike Physical Capital, here the humans need to also transform themselves and invest their own time and resources to become better by each day. General training or learning is typically the target for individual investments in themselves as they cut across employers and employers see this as additional cost (no additional benefit). Specific trainings are under the purview of institutions and they invest in organizing them for specific employees (additional cost with matching additional benefits). Specific trainings are seen as additional cost without additional benefits by the employees and hence employers have to invest in such interventions by themselves. Rate of return: Since education is an investment to form Human Capital, the concept of rate of return is applicable to it too. It has four aspects : private or individual rate of return, social or public rate of return, adjustments like anticipated mortality, earnings, taxes, unemployment and innate ability (realistic estimations and projections of cost and benefits) and earning functions (methods to measure and quantify the benefits or earnings) like wages, working hours, education level and associated earnings etc. Earnings

In what different ways ‘cost’ is defined in distance education ? What is marginal and average costs, and fixed and variable costs in distance education? Managing costs in distance education needs an understanding of the types of costs incurred as well as the cost functions, i.e., what are the inputs and output variables and methods of computing these costs. In short, just like any other process, the focus on cost effectiveness and cost efficiency is a must, as lowering the cost and increasing the benefits improves the value of the process and its outcomes.  Cost is a mathematical function, and in order to be precise, it needs to consider all the inputs that contribute to the cost of delivering distance education. Distance education is about scale, and hence, it should help understand how the output or the cost gets impacted by the inputs, such as the number of learners enrolled. In short, a measure like “economies of scale” is a good point of view to have. Education is a significant economic expenditure (around 3.5% of India’s GNP), and it is undoubtedly a significant proportion of national expenditure, perhaps second only to national defense. This makes analysis of educational costs for efficiency and effectiveness all the more necessary to understand where the money is coming from and how well it is being spent. For instance, are the right educational resources being allocated in the right sectors or regions for securing growth; or what factors are major ones in terms of influencing these costs; or what are the critical sources of funds that can be tapped, etc.? Consider the distance education function as an outcome of a process. Just like any other process, it has its own inputs and outputs. Educational institutes, just like any other firm, transform these inputs into outputs and, in this process, add value to the customer or consumer of their products and services (satisfying the need for new cognitive abilities of the buyer or customer). Outputs are the courses delivered and students transformed (gaining new knowledge and/or skills) as consumers of these courses (services, products). The production of these courses involves human resources like faculty members and non-human resources like ICT, Printing Machinery, Stationary Material, Office or Workplace Building/Infrastructure etc. Hence, the educational institutions have their own trade-offs in terms of acquiring these resources at a monetary value instead of making expenditure for other alternatives (for different products or goods i.e. alternative transformation opportunities). So, one of the ways to look at the cost of distance education is to look at it from the lens of various activities that are performed and do activity-based costing. It could be logically summed up around clusters of activities (activity centers). The cost of these activity centres, when added, could provide the total cost. Having activity centres helps understand how these activities contribute to the cost and how they could be made more efficient and effective. The other perspective is to look at the overall cost with its components split as direct or indirect, i.e., fixed and variable costs. Another useful perspective is to look at the cost as an average and marginal cost. Let’s first look at these activity centers. There are four of them: course design, course development, course delivery, and course evaluation. Course Design: This starts with a survey to establish the need for having a course in the first place. In addition, one can study the reports already published on the subject. It gives information about the demand and supply gap. For an educational institute, it is about understanding the needs of the nation by each state or region and the people or communities (and their demands or requirements) to be addressed. Eventually, the course needs to be defined in terms of various aspects of consideration like title, objectives, target groups, entry criteria, availability of experts to develop learning resources in different digital and non-digital formats, modality of the programme development and delivery, possible sources of funding for the development of such a programme and the fees to be charged from the learners or students, etc. Getting these aspects of consideration in place (i.e. performing activities associated with the course design activity-center), need time and efforts of the faculty members which means incurring expenses whether paid as a salary to them or honorarium to the experts and other expenses like procuring research reports or conducting market surveys etc.  Course Development: This activity centre involved efforts and time spent on developing the components of the course like the programme handbook, student programme guide, course modules and units, credit hours for each, technology for digital content for distribution, student activities and practicum, student assessments and assignments, learning support system, etc. All these activities need time and cost allocation for developing the learning resources and environment. There are various course development models and also the mechanisms of media mix—supplementary, complementary, and integrated. Course Delivery: Once the course is developed (certificate, diploma, or degree), it needs to be delivered. It involves many activities like advertising the course and marketing it over the social media channels, enrolling the students into batches, managing payments (recurring or one-time or referral discount or credits), giving them access to the content digitally or shipping printed materials, organising online and offline sessions at study centers, faculty and industry expert lectures and demonstrations, communications and reminders for study and assessments (including announcements and notification in bulk over mobile applications and SMS etc.), web-based support and counselling or mentoring sessions, call centre or chat or email or discussion board support for learners, assessments and grading and publishing scores and certifications. Finally, managing them as alumni. All these activities are pertaining to the delivery of the course and are the activities to be considered for costing purposes. Course Evaluation: Once the programme is delivered or being delivered, there are quality monitoring activities to understand where the gaps are in terms of meeting the expectations of the stakeholders and the learning outcomes or objectives. These gaps or issues or suggestions,

1. Introduction: In a natural environment, the components interact with each other in an informal and unorganized manner leading to unpredictable or unspecified learning.  2. Instructions: In a controlled environment with predefined learning objectives, governed under a set of clearly defined instructions (guidelines or set of directives for performing activities or following procedures to achieve a predefined goal) can help us lead to attaining predictable learning outcomes. By instructions, we mean, directed teaching efforts (to build an organized learning process i.e. controlled environment) of the teacher to impart the required knowledge and experiences to the learners. Teaching and Instruction as terms could be found being used interchangeably but Instruction is more apt when it comes to defining the directed learning process. 3. Instructional System: Components inter-operating to deliver a desired function predictably, repeatedly and consistently in terms of the outcomes and performance is called a system. By Instructional System, it means components like learning process objectives, planning, implementation and testing of the learning outcomes. Instructions coded (automated or manually) when followed, guide the human interactions with an organized environment to achieve certain objectives (or behavioral changes). In other words, students following the instructions would undergo behavioral changes (difference between entry behaviors and terminal behaviors). They are expected to achieve certain terminal behaviors (expected terminal behaviors). The difference between actual and expected terminal behaviors is a measure of effectiveness of the learning process and such a measurement serves the purpose of providing the feedback. 4. Instructional Systems (IS) Design (ISD): ISD is a four stage design process : [A] Objectivizing (objectives are specified in terms of set of learning outcomes in the direction of overall goal/education/IS and an instructor or designer identifies the objectives needed to develop the procedures for the IS i.e. what needs to be achieved at the end of the teaching or learning process as an outcome i.e. terminal behaviors/change), [B] Planning, [C] Implementing & [D] Testing.  [B] Planning and Implementing stages put together constitute the core part of the process (also referred collectively as “designing the system” ). Planning (also referred as “analyzing the system requirements”) involves having understood the objectives, arriving at alternative or  all possible paths or educational methods or means or procedures (with known merits, demerits, limitations or constraints) to achieve these identified objectives and designated resources needed for these alternative paths or solutions, in order to choose or select the best possible alternative as a learning process or solution (given the set objectives).  It needs collective information about the potential alternative or solutions or methods and their merits and demerits and resources (attached costs) etc. It needs to consider the controlled learning environment and various variables that can impact its performance – (i) content that needs to meet the learning goal or outcomes (ii) facilities, materials, human activities and efforts, equipment, media, ICT etc. that needs to put/keep the learning environment in motion/operation (iii) factors as constraints related to time, autonomy of learner/teacher, cost etc. leading to trade-offs and related decisions (iv) learner characteristics or persona, number of learners, groups, entry behaviors, prior knowledge or academics, experience, personal and professional backgrounds, aspirations, learning style, studying skills and ability or learning rate etc.). Objectives and resources must get identified before designing or implementing the IS. [C] Implementation (also referred in nutshell as “designing the IS”) comes after objectives, procedures and resources needed are clearly identified. The design of IS must be instructive. IS designed should have inter-operative components working effectively (assisting each other) for the achievement of learning outcomes, objectives and eventual goal. It (IS Designed) should also operate with compatibilities with other IS external to the environment. It puts the plan into action to deliver the IS that can be used to execute multiple iterations of the learning process. Reviewing the implementation as per the plan (selected or chosen solution) is the responsibility of the designer or instructor. Designer or reviewer has to check whether each of the set objectives are met by the IS being planned and implemented (designed) or not, at each phase of the designing (planning and implementation) process .  ISD process improves the quality of the instructions by addressing various assumptions inherent in the instruction system – (i) no two learners are alike (entry behaviors  are different – prior knowledge/experience, learning style, level of motivation, learning ability or rate etc., ). (ii) each educational method or procedure has  its own set of merits and demerits or defects i.e. they differ in terms of their what objectives they can help achieve/deliver. In other words, level of objectives define what educational methods to be selected to build an instructional system. (iii) pre-requisites and practice (in case of a complex learning process or activities for higher learning objectives or outcomes) can help increase the level of motivation and prevent from degrading or lowering the learning objectives. (iv) exposing learners to wide range of subjects, ideas, attitudes etc., should not be construed as equivalent to delivering relevant content and related skills and competencies. In other words, the act of increasing the quantity does not necessarily means, it is a substitute for increasing the quality of the learning process. In other words, simply adding more resources or components in the system does not mean it will yield more or better outcomes. Designing or implementing IS needs to incorporate leaner’s characteristics and instructional media, techniques and materials available for them for in classroom or face to face or self learning environments – (i) individual differences (ii) readiness (iii) motivation and (iv) study conditions.  Based on the learner characteristics, learner support systems have to be designed.  In terms of instructional techniques and media, these are primarily of four types (i) Leaner centered – personalized systems of instructions, flexi-study, distance learning, progammed learning, computer assisted learning and individual projects (ii) group centered – tutorial, seminar, group discussion, group project (iii) teacher centered – lecture method, demonstration method and (iv) experience centered – discovery learning, learner centered instructions, simulation techniques, role play and case study techniques.  [D] Testing (also referred as ”